Article Analysis of Supply and Demand Essay

The software business a few years back was at its peak and the growing demand for software gave software companies the leverage to raise prices. When firms bought software it was in the form of a perpetual license and was costly for them. In this context, a perpetual license gave the consumers unlimited access to the software and usually tried to utilize the software more efficiently. Thus lowering the demand for software, prices were also lowered because fewer consumers were willing to pay for something they could not effectively use. With a decrease in demand, supply also decreased. This paper is based on the article Supply and Demand: Software Pricing by Jeffrey Rothfeder, which was published in PC Magazine (2004). This paper presents an analysis of the article using the economic theories of supply and demand. Demand is comprised of the desire of the consumer to buy something, the consumer’s ability to pay and willingness to pay. Thus, in the peak years of the software industry, business and firms, both multimillion companies and smaller ones bought software like pancakes because of their desire for efficiency, which the software companies promised them. Then, business firms had the ability to pay for it since it was seen as an investment and would help them reap more profits. Which also made them more willing to pay for it. When companies bought additional software to complement what they already had resulted to marginal utility of the software, then as companies bought more software that the software company told them to use but could not effectively maximize it contributed to a diminishing marginal utility. Thus, the demand for software begun to decrease, coupled with this the dot.com crash came, the supply of software in the market was high, but the demand was low which eventually resulted into a lowering of the prices of the software license. This cycle meant that the software industry is dependent on what the consumer is willing to pay for. On the other hand, the changes in the supply and demand and prices of software can also be brought about by a number of factors, like the rapid technological advancements in IT, the operational costs of using software and even the attitude of managers towards the usefulness and effectiveness of the software. In the past, software companies offered perpetual licenses to its consumers, this meant that consumers would have unlimited access to the software but because of the technological advancements in the information technology, most of the software bought in the past could not run and its usefulness diminished. This entailed getting an upgrade or replacing the software entirely, but because of the past experience of mangers with the huge expenditure in buying software, it made them unwilling to pay for it the second time. A new breed of software companies also capitalized on the existing business environment, wherein they knew that consumers were looking for alternatives and options. This is what they gave the consumers, instead of making software that would replace the original software, they developed a program that would enhance their existing programs, and they could buy it by subscription, which they can renew for the time they want to use it. This gave consumers the psychological feeling of being in control, instead of being at the mercy of the software companies. Thus, demand for this kind of software and this approach in licensing also spurned the increase in supply and also in prices. But since many vendors offer this alternative, and the losses of software companies made them more careful in their business strategies, they have to remain competitive in their prices. Consumers generally would want to pay less for what they need, which the subscription approach answers. Then with the development of the new way of delivering software through the internet (ASP) which reduces operational costs of software companies again moved the prices of the product. At first, the public was hesitant in using this technology because of security and quality issues. However, big companies utilized it and therefore led to the belief that the risks associated with using this form is low and since them it has gained acceptance in the consumers. This again demonstrates how the growth in one aspect of the product can lead to an increase in demand and supply. More and more consumers have also become intelligent in what they want and need out of softwares, thus the idea of paying for a software like a utility commodity has not gained much credence. The use for softwares in business firms are numerous and a pay as you use approach is not viable since people nowadays depend on technology to become efficient in their jobs. On the other hand, the software industry have also responded with a few measures that would somehow change the quantity demanded of their products by going after software piracy and misuse of software licenses, thus effecting changes in the demand of the products like when a pirated software is confiscated or shut down and since people rely on it for their business they would probably go out and buy the real one. In conclusion, the software industry still has power over the market of their programs, but with the increasing knowledge of consumers on the intricacies of using a software, their power over the supply, demand and prices of their products would slowly wane. References Articles Rothfeder, J. (2004). Supply and Demand: Software Pricing. PC Magazine (February).Retrieved May 10, 2006 from http://www. eweek. com/article2/0,1759,1539611,00. asp Pombriant, D. (2003). â€Å"Hosted CRM Popularity Continues To Grow—But How Far Will It Go? † Aberdeen Group Websites www. softlicense. net/ webcomment. htm Software licensing tips and hints www. siia. net//divisions/software/pubs/statpage. pdf Software industry statistics.

Marketing Strategy of Beeline Essay

INTRODUCTION GTEL Corporation and VimpelCom penetrated in Vietnamese telecommunication market in 8th July 2008 under the brand name Beeline VN to provide GSM/EDGE voice and data services to cover all Vietnam with over 86million people. Until now, Beeline wants to select more strategies in order to achieve their objective which is growing their market share to 30% like the three giants: Mobilephone, Vinaphone and Viettel. From the last study, IBD strategic counseling center have identified and analyzed Beeline’s strategy as well as the position of the company in Vietnamese market. Furthermore, some suggestions for improving were also given. This report, hence, will evaluate every possible strategy for Beeline in many aspects as well as propose a  plan for the most appropriate future strategies. MAJOR FINDINGS I. Possible alternative strategies for Beeline 1. Identify possible strategies. According to the last study, Beeline’s position in the BCG matrix is question mark due to the high growth rate of the industry while the market share of Beeline is relatively low (only 4%). Moreover, in the product life cycle, Beeline has launched and introduced their services not for long. As a result, for three others stages in the product life cycle (growth, mature and decline), Beeline can implement most of the substantive growth, limited growth and retrenchment strategies. In order to identify those strategies, the most effective tool is Space matrix. Figure 1. BCG matrix Figure 2. Product life cycle a. Environmental stability By using the information from the external environment, we can identify as well as score the options in this factor. First of all, telecommunication market in Vietnam especially mobile network services has recently rocketed significantly. From the limited network until now, most of the places in Vietnam are coverage by applying many new technologies and liquidate the outdated one (GSM/EDGE, IP utilizing the NGN technology with frequency band of 1800MHz) so as Beeline will not be lagged behind by the three giants. Secondly, according to many economists, the inflation rate of Vietnam is still a double digit (14%) and it is considered as really high compared to other developing country (in 1 digit). Now, the Vietnamese government is using ceiling and floor price as well as tariffs to modulate the inflation rate back to one digit. Furthermore, at the beginning, Beeline launched the most extraordinary cheap services (Big zero) to market while other three giants’ price is much higher than Beeline. Therefore, the price range of Beeline with the average price of the industry is really high. Nevertheless, the last thing belongs to the environmental stability is barrier to entry into the market. From the political factor in the previous study, Vietnamese government is encouraging investments from oversea to increase the FDI  (Foreign direct investment), so that the tariffs and policy are absolutely motivating every foreign business like Beeline. Moreover, telecommunication is the most vital service in the modern world and this is also an industry which gains the most attention from the politician. As a result, besides high initial investment, the barrier to entry of this industry can be scored 4. b. Financial strength Financial strength is a strong point of Beeline. According to the annual report of Beeline, the return on investment rate of Beeline remains in 4.2%for each billion of dollars invested after payback. Besides, the profitability ratio of Beeline always stands above 50% (50.4%) and nearly equal to Mobilephone (53%). In another aspect, Beeline has 16years of history in the telecommunication market which means Beeline has experience in the current market. Until now, Beeline has provided 86 million mobile subscribers in total and it is till increasing while the price of services become cheaper and cheaper. Thus, they are able to have a large economy of scale. If there is a potential plan, Beeline will not hesitate to invest because they have the capital required for most of the plan by extracting a part in the total revenue of $2.27 and from the huge capital of Beeline. In the future, Beeline can maintain this strength to obtain their objectives especially updating new technology. c. Industry strength In this aspect, we can concern on three main factors: Financial stability, resource utilization and capital intensity. Firstly, the demand of using telecommunication services is always stable in most of the time, so that the revenue and financial status of this industry will always in a stable position. In the modern world, telecommunication is no longer a demand but a need of every citizen in the world. Thus, 6 will be the score for this option. On the other hand, the utilization of resources can also be taken full advantages by every business not only capital but also human resources (think global, act local). For instance, Beeline hired a professional force from both oversea (Mr. Alexey Blyumin, CEO) and Vietnam (Mr. Nguyen The Binh, Deputy CEO) to administrate the company in Vietnamese market. From the professional force, they will propose the best way of utilizing the financial resource in the most economical way. Last but not least, Beeline  is a foreign group with a huge amount of capital available. Consequently, the capital intensity of Beeline deserves to receive the highest score. d. Competitive advantage As aforementioned, Beeline has the capacity of providing services for more than 86 million people which is equal to the population of Vietnam while other three giants are in the process of signal coverage for the whole country. For Beeline, this objective will be obtained more easily than competitors (5years while others may take 10 years). From the statistic above, Beeline market share at the moment remain in 4% which is not high compared to the three giants. However, the service of Beeline quality is quite acceptable according to the opinion of the students who are the target customers of Beeline. Moreover, the time for Beeline to launch a new service is quite short (about 3 months) whereas Viettel or Mobilephone takes 6 months or a whole year to release a new service (3G). To sum up, the whole information and analysis will be shown in the table below to identify the position of Beeline in Space matrix. Diagram 1. Space matrix of Beeline When Beeline takes market penetration into consideration, they should invest more on PR and marketing campaign to create awareness and reputation in the public. Moreover, improving after sales service will help Beeline gain customer loyalty for repeat purchasing. For market development, Beeline may find some other potential market in Vietnam especially in the rural areas but the living standard of the citizens at that place is at medium level (Dien Bien, Sapa, Tam Dao, etc). This strategy can be apply easily thanks to  the development of technology, so that Beeline just have to concern about human resource or others factors. However, Beeline still have to use other strategies as well at the rural area to compete with Viettel who have coverage most of the places in Vietnam. Next, product development strategy is about focusing on R&D. Beeline needs to create the new product line or add more value to the services like packaging, online counseling, etc. However, no matter what they do, they have to assemble to maintain their corporate image, their style (black and yellow) during the campaign. Finally, diversification will be the last secret weapon in the aggressive strategies. Specifically, Beeline can use forward , backward integration and horizontal integration like building more agencies throughout Vietnam or even providing mobile phone and internet, wireless, etc with the attractive price like Viettel sell Iphone 3, internet network Dcom 3G. Invest more on new technology| v| v| x| x| 13| 3rd | Table 3. Ranking and scoring From the table, it is noticeably that there are some tactics have the same score. Thus, it is depend on the manage board to decide which activities should do first or they need to have a strategic allocation of capital to do these activities simultaneously (find the critical path). If Beeline allocates the resource as well as schedule in the most effective way, they will not only minimize but also increase their profit and market share. The first thing they have to do is all about people. Hiring the right people is the most important for all business because it is the people who create the product, seek for customer and bring back profit for the company. This activity will lead to a good result of other activities of Beeline. That’s why, they hired a professional Vietnamese person to be the vice deputy of Beeline. It is obviously that when you do nothing, you gain nothing but sometimes during the economist crisis, do nothing is a good strategy unless the cost of doing nothing lower than making a new plan. II. Strategic plan of the most appropriate strategies for Beeline 1. Select the final strategies: At the end of the day, after analyzed and evaluated every available strategy, IBD agency will propose Beeline to apply market penetration and product development. Others strategies like market development or diversification are slightly risky according to some internal stakeholders. Moreover, the three giants have successfully applied market development and if Beeline do so, it is really hard to compete because even Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City which are the most potential market of Vietnam, Beeline have to endeavor to survive. For diversification, this kind of services play a role as a contributor only and most of the telecommunication company create their own supply, so that Beeline could hardly to do so. Making a new product seems to  be hard for Beeline because they have to maintain their style and corporate image. Thus, just do what you are best. At the moment, there are some strategies which is work for Beeline like Cost leadership or differentiation (for different services). However, when Beeline success like Viettel, cost leadership will not necessary like Viettel in the past, they launch out many cheap services but now it rarely has new promotion. 2. Strategic plan Implementation is most difficult part which every company faces. Making a plan is easy but when they implement it, they will face many unexpected problem like physical risks (an manager may got an accident, etc) or business risks, financial risks, natural risks, etc. As a result, there need to be a detail plan and closely control system. This plan will be taken charged by the management board as well as every departments of the company. a. Management board Management board is the head of the company, so that Beeline needs to hire a professional person to take charge this position. First of all, the senior manager have to make a clear vision and mission as well as objectives for every department to explain deeply for them to work in the right direction. This is called envisioning. Apart from that, controlling and encouraging will ensure every department especially Marketing and Financial Department support each other and the manager also have to support them not only for professional issues but also ratify their plan. By recognizing contribution with fair wages and salaries, Beeline’s manager will not only motivate them for increasing productivity but also gaining their respect. Last but not least, in order to implement well, Beeline need to apply both intended (deliberate) and emergent (realize) strategies because by doing so, they will not only have clear and reality mission from the information gather from functional department but other department also have a clear mind about their mission to implement the strategy. For the managers, by creating the responsibility charts will help Beeline manager have a clear and logistic plan. A clear objectives, sub-objectives, general program and make an assumption will set a mile stone for the employees to achieve and also make a competitive environment when the manager utilize with his/her motivation program. b. Departments Working as a team is not about in a inside but also among departments together. Marketing department will take charge of making plan to build reputation and promote the profit of Beeline. However, Beeline cannot use all of their money for advertising. This is the time for financial department, the CFO (Chief Financial Officer) will calculate the cost of advertising and ask the CMO (Chief Marketing Officer) to adjust the plan to match with the budget of the company. However, in order to have such a professional labor to do so, the Human resource department has to ask other department for their demanded labor. Base on that, the manager of HR department will seek and find the right person for that position especially the labor force for PR activities. There are others department which Beeline needs to concern but as a telecommunication provider, those three departments are the most important. c. Allocate resources As a contributor of mobile network, the human resource of Beeline need to be allocate most in the sales department while other professional one will place in the vital position (manager, team leaders). Moreover, Beeline also needs to contribute the services fairly between the southern and northern of Vietnam so as not face the overload problem in one territory. About financial issue, minimize expense by hiring the local people and maximize the profit because the local people know their customers best. Moreover, always checking the budget will help Beeline have a timely adjustment. All of the resource are available in the society both HR (in the society or university) and financial (bank, issuing share, etc). When Beeline become the one of the heavenly king of Vietnamese telecommunications market, they can have another network system to allocate the resource not only the urban areas but also the entire country. CONCLUSION This report has made a comprehensive evaluation of many strategies available for beeline. However, the most effective strategies which Beeline needs to take into consideration are market penetration and product development. Furthermore, not only the management board of Beeline must envision but also make sure every department support and working together as a team. REFERENCES * Product life cycle: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/product-life-cycle.html * Beeline VN information: * http://beeline.vn/vn/pages/news.aspx?id=72 * http://www.maivoo.com/2011/03/29/Suc-tang-truong-cua-thi-truong-vien-thong-manh-tro-lai-n324141.html * http://en.beeline.vn/en/pages/content.aspx?id=100 * http://ebrandium.com/thu-vien/marketing/mot-chien-luoc-tiep-thi-toan-dien-case-beeline-vietnam.html * http://vccinews.vn/?page=detail&folder=96&Id=276 http://vnexpress.net/gl/kinh-doanh/2009/08/3ba11ea3/ * Secondary data: * BPP Professional Education, 2004, Business Strategy, London: BPP Professional Education * BPP Professional Education, 2004, Business Environment, London: BPP Professional Education * Duc, Nguyen Anh (2010), â€Å"Marketing research of transmission and recommendations for VIETTEL† NEU’s MBA course. * Tuan, Doan Anh (2010), â€Å"Developing the services of Hanoi telecommunication company†, NEU’s MBA course. * General Statistic Office, 2011. Social – economic in 2010 [Online] Available at: http://www.gso.gov.vn/default.aspx?tabid=621&ItemID=10835 [Access: April 11, 2011] * Scribd.com, 2010. Beeline Vietnam marketing strategy [Online] http://www.scribd.com/doc/28790390/chi%E1%BA%BFn-l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c-markeeting-c%E1%BB%A7a-beeline * Binh, Vu Quoc (2011) â€Å"Bà ¡o cà ¡o vá »  tà ¬nh hà ¬nh và   nhá » ¯ng vá º ¥n Ä‘á »  Ä‘á º ·t ra trong phà ¡t triá »Æ'n kinh tá º ¿ xà £ há »â„¢i cá » §a thá » § Ä‘Ã ´ Hà   Ná »â„¢i và   cá º £ nÆ °Ã¡ »â€ºc nhá » ¯ng thà ¡ng Ä‘á º §u nÄÆ'm 2011; nhá » ¯ng kiá º ¿n nghá »â€¹, giá º £i phà ¡p† Hanoi researching socio-economic development study published. * Cuong, Vu Huy (2011) â€Å"Business strategy assignment 1† * Beeline strategies:

Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun Essay

In Chapter Five of the book, Attila experienced facing different issues and problems because of the diversity of the numerous tribes (Roberts, 1987). In relation to this, I also have to deal with the conflicting members of a social organization that I belong to. This social organization advocates helping out to the less fortunate members of the society through outreach programs. The members of this organization are composed of diverse individuals with different backgrounds like race and religion. Due to this, it cannot be prevented that internal conflict occurs because of these differences. However, I remember one internal conflict that threatened to put factions among its members. The problem arises because of the various suggestions that the members have for the next project. Some of them want to do a feeding program while others want to invest in a livelihood project. The proposals have its respective pros and cons. Nevertheless, the morale of the organizations is already affected because some members are already talking ill behind each other’s back and they are already taking sides. As a result, the leader of the organization decided to conduct an open forum that allowed every member to express his or her concerns. The problem was solved by the cooperation of the members wherein they find a common ground that will include some parts of both the proposals. Q6. In Chapter Six, Attila emphasizes the characteristics that a leader should have. In line with this, the leader of our social organization also received the proper reward for all his efforts in playing a greater role in keeping the group together. This reward is in the form of the respect that our members give to him. Despite the fact that internal conflicts sometimes emerged in the organization, the members never forget to give due respect to our leader especially when he initiated the open forum that solved a conflict that was about to divide our group. The leader of our organization is indeed an effective leader because he has the characteristics that exemplify Attila’s words of counsel. He always gives importance to his responsibilities and never takes advantage of the privilege that comes with his position. Our leader also put the welfare of the members of the group first before his sake. Furthermore, he does not give importance to his reputation in terms of what other people say about him (Roberts, 1987). The only vital thing for him is that he is doing his responsibilities properly. He believes that by doing what is right will only show those people who speak ill of him that they are wrong. Reference Roberts, W. (1987). Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun. New York: War

Communication Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Communication Law - Essay Example During that time, obscenity was defined as anything that can and or had the tendency to corrupt and debauch susceptible minds that were open to such immoral impact and to those hands the content might happen to fall. This was called the Hicklin rule. It meant that if any section of a book or other works could corrupt and or deprave the minds of any person who sees the work, the material was obscene, and no one was allowed to buy or see it (Rault, 2006). This facilitated the censorship of a wide array of materials by the government. Roth simply recapped the proposals lower courts had been trying to put across for years-the test for obscenity should be based on whether an average person, considering the prevalent community standards, the main theme of the material as a whole applies to the voyeuristic interest. This standard offers guidance in the determination of materials that should be considered obscene.it was essential to distinctly identify actual obscenity and materials that mer ely delve in the areas that are not traditionally bound to society’s norms and acceptability. The court started to consider the many problems that Roth had not covered. In small groups justices sought to clarify queries such as: What is the average person? What is prurient interest? What are the contemporary community standards? In 1950s and 1960s, the Supreme Court adopted a new definition and test for obscenity (Rault, 2006). This was the Roth-Memoirs test. It differed from the previous standard in that: The main theme of the material that was taken as a whole, appeals to the average prurient interest in sex of the person. Materials were taken patently offensive if they affront the contemporary standards of the community on sexual matters. It assumed a single country-wide standard was applicable in the whole country. The material has no social value at all that is, it’s utterly without any redeeming social value. Today, a miller test is used to determine obscenity. S omething is considered obscene if viewed as a whole where the work: Appeals to the prurient interest to the average person applying contemporary community standards. Depicts sexual conduct in a patently offensive manner, measured by the contemporary community standards Lacks serious artistic, literary, political and scientific value. In the past two decades, conformist groups have applied significant pressure on the music and arts industry. The 2 Live Crew is a good example where the band was tried for use of obscenity. For the first time apparently, the court of appeals applied the Miller test to a musical composition with instrumentals and lyrics. The case is particularly controversial as the only evidence presented was the tape recording and the case was tried by a judge with no jury. According to the court, the materials in the 2 Live Crew’s album As Nasty As They Wanna Be was officially obscene considering the community standards and it became illegal to sell or perform in any of Florida’s counties. For instance, the movie: Columbia Holocaust has been a target for censorship by animal and moral activists and has seen about five minutes cut to remove rape scenes and animal cruelty. Applying the Miller test, it is certain that the movie, especially by the community standards at the time of its release, appeals to the prurient interest of an average person. It also contains numerous scenes of high levels sexual violence. The level of artistic, scientific and literary value

Homeostasis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Homeostasis - Assignment Example the brain receives signals about this change in the energy demand, a negative feedback mechanism works to regulate it back to regular levels (Kelliher & Media, 2011). Energy creation requires oxygen so the more you run, the more energy is used which causes the breathing rate to increase so that there is enough energy for the cells. This increased demand for oxygen and energy means that the negative feedback loop will increase the blood pressure and breathing rate so that the blood is oxygenated quickly and is delivered to the contracting muscle tissue (Sherwood, 2008). During exercise, aerobic oxidation of glucose takes place initially which means that the rate of oxygen uptake is enough to meet the oxygen and energy demands. However as we continue to run, anaerobic oxidation starts which causes the breathing rate to increase further and this causes an oxygen deficit and lactic acid build up (Sherwood, 2008). Once you stop running and rest, your body’s negative feedback loop works to regain stability and remove the Lactic Acid by oxidizing it. This is known as post exercise oxygen consumption which would explain why Farah was still breathing heavily during the interview. It was because the negative feedback loop was working to ensure an increased amount of oxygen uptake to remove the oxygen deficit and oxidize the Lactic Acid (Sherwood,

Supply Chain Management Performance Measures as a competitive Essay

Supply Chain Management Performance Measures as a competitive advantage for Qatari Organization - Essay Example Various concepts that are included in the supply chain management are discussed. The various criteria that have to be focused for improving the SCM are also discussed well. The various recommendations given for improving the SCM in Qatari organizations are to upgrade the technologies, maintain a minimum stock level to avoid interruptions in work, train the workforce engaged in the SCM activities. The supply chain management is a complex task. It increase the over all productivity of the organization if they are managed properly and controlled well. Complications in supply chain vary with the size of the business and also with the number of manufactured items. The origin and end point of a supply chain is the customer itself. The Elements involved in a supply chain are customer and the planning, purchasing, inventory, production and transportation departments within the company. Supply chain should be strategic and equipped. A perfect supply chain needs the use of technological investments like use of enterprise resource planning suites. The study is about measuring the supply chain management system in the Qatari organizations. The term supply chain management has augment to the importance in the earlier days. A supply chain system is a set of connections of amenities and allotment options that executes the task of procurement of raw materials, conversion of these materials into semi-finished and finished products and the delivery of these finished products to the ultimate customers. The concept of supply chain management system is implemented in both product and service manufacturing industries. The intricacy of the value chain differs tremendously based on industry category and nature. The supply chain management is considered to be the central part of the organization which serves both customer and organizations requirements. It helps in the procurement of the raw material from the right

Art History from the Orientalizaing period to the Hellenistic Essay

Art History from the Orientalizaing period to the Hellenistic - Essay Example Nonetheless, the Greek sculptures were presented in nude form. The male sculptures created in this age illustrated no stress on the anatomy of the bone and muscle. This was clearly obvious by the lack of details around the joints, in the knees and also in the arms. Another central trait of the early Greek sculpture was the lack of movement natural stance in the figure. A perfect case in point of an Orientalizing period sculpture is the Kouros, one of the earliest life-size statuary in Greek art history (Palagia 109-111). Unlike contemporary sculptures, the slim waste of the Kouros and its pointed arch of its rib cage create a ridge that takes the form of a v shape. The Kouros does not portray the moving flesh linked with the human body muscle. Similar to other early Greek sculptures, the artwork has almost no motion depiction since the figures are usually standing straight and still. As time passed, the Greeks began to attain more skills and improved techniques permitting them to represent the human body in a better way. On the classical period era arrival, Greek sculptors now had the ability to make the figures more naturalistic. The nude male sculptures were now portrayed in a variety of diverse poses. In the classical period, sculptors devoted a significant part of their focus to exploiting the decorative potentialities of the wind-blown style of interpreting drapery. The Parthenon pediments sculptors had developed this drapery. The two most frequently used materials during the classical period were marble and bronze. However, various grandiose works mostly cult statues were ordered in a method that was known as chryselephantine. The flesh was overlaid with ivory upon a wooden frame and the drapery with gold. It was during this era that artists became acknowledged for their works (Green 6). For instance, Polyclitus, one of the most Greek sculpture influential theorists argued that a figure should possess ideal proportions. He also

Marketing Products Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Marketing Products - Assignment Example It would be ensured that the beverages would not be supplied to corporate customers in plastic bottles for environmental issues (MHHE, n.d). The ingredients of the products would be scrutinized by the marketing department and it would be ensured that the product content comply with the national health and safety guidelines. Beverages Description Cola It would be available in basic cola flavor with lesser caffeine and caramel content. It would also include additional content of vitamins, taurine, and niacin (Coca Cola, 2013a). Diet Coke This product will have lesser sugar and caramel content. The prime motive of marketing department would be to offer a sparkling drink with lesser amount of calories that will include additional mineral and vitamins (America’s Greatest Brands, 2013). Bottled Water The water will be purified in special filtration process and additional nutrients and vitamins would be included to deliver fresh taste (America’s Greatest Brands, 2013). Sparkli ng Drinks The sparkling drink would be highly concentrated with additional nutritional requirements to offer a distinctive flavor to the customers (Coca Cola, 2013). (2) Service Component of Fizzy Cola The service component will add value to the product and also enhance the brand personality and features to attract potential customers. Service is an intangible product and consists of additional features and benefits that are relevant to a specific target market (Rao, 2004).The main objective of the company would be to offer beverages in the initial stages and there would be no services offered by the company. However, the research and development team of Fizzy Cola would be the design making of machines and equipments which would have the potentiality of developing high quality beverages. One of the prime objectives would be to develop high quality filtration machinery which would purify the beverages and remove the pesticides. After the company has been able to establish itself in the market it would considers plans of providing services like downloading of free music, nutritional information etc. This would help the company to position itself strongly in the beverage market. (3) Product Mix of Fizzy Cola The product mix also popularly known as product assortment refers to the total number of product lines that a company can offer to its customers. Width: The width of the company pertains to the total number of products lines that a company offers (Suttle, 2013). For example Fizzy Cola would offer beverages in cola and varied other flavors. Hence, the product width of the company is two. Later, advanced technology may permit the company to diversify into other industries and develop further products (Suttle, 2013). Length: The product length pertains to the total number of products in a company’s product mix (Suttle, 2013). In the initial stages the company would be offering beverages in three varied flavors and juices in three basic flavors apple, man go and mixed fruit. The product length for Fizzy Cola would be six. Depth: In the initial stages the company would be offering beverages in three basic flavors and in can sizes of 8oz, 12 oz, 16 oz, and 20 oz. The product depth would be 12 in this case. Consistency: The consistency will pertain to how close the product lines

SHORT PRIMARY SOURCE ESSAY Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SHORT PRIMARY SOURCE ESSAY - Assignment Example Despite being a leader in the military, artistic works portray him appreciating himself for the glory he gives to France (Dwyer, 2004). In addition, Napoleon’s passion for his work and country comes out in the letters and utterances he makes to his brothers and soldiers. Napoleon has affection towards his friends and family. Despite the distances between them, he keeps writing to his elder brother Joseph. On June 29th 1795, he writes to his elder brother concerning his travel to a far place. Napoleon wishes to have the memory of his brother whom he refers to as a dear friend, thus he requests for his portrait. Though they are of age and free to achieve different goals in life, Napoleon does not wish that his brother depart. This makes him sad as he fears that it would be long before he sees his brother. Almost a month letter; Napoleon writes to Joseph again, informing him about a job he receives as a general of the army in the west. However, he is unhappy because Joseph is prudent and laconic. Though he is free to make his decisions, Napoleon shows interest in having his brother give him direction concerning the job offer (Headley, 1858). Napoleon seeks to expand France after losing a battle for America. He thus sells Louisiana to the American government and moves to conquer more land in Europe. Napoleon’s determination to make France the world’s most powerful nation is clear, as he shows no fear of the third coalition. This coalition comprised of Britain, Russia, Austria and Sweden whom he defeats with help from Rhine, Italy and Holland. Napoleon expresses his happiness for his soldiers; he congratulates them for winning the battle against Austria and again doing the same to Britain. He is proud of his country and wishes to forge good relations between France and other countries. Thus, he says that France will be proud to have her partners help fight war another time (The French Revolution and Napoleon,

The Collapse of Communism in the USSR and Eastern Europe Essay Example for Free

The Collapse of Communism in the USSR and Eastern Europe Essay Analyses of the collapse of communism have followed a dialectical path since the early 1990s, explaining the implosion first as the direct result of US pressure, then as the inevitable fall of a flawed system, and finally, as a combination of the two. This fluctuation has occurred as national archives from both the East and the West have become increasingly accessible, giving historians a more complete picture of trends that may have contributed to the climate within the Eastern bloc at the beginning of the relevant period. Indeed, such documents have been instrumental in dispelling the view that the pivotal events of 1989 had relatively short-term roots. Some analysts have developed reasonable arguments tracing the fall of the Warsaw Pact back only as far as 1985, but for the most part, these are unsatisfying, ignoring critical factors such as the rise of the hawkists in America, and the role of world-wide peace movements. In addition, the release of top secret CIA files has shed interesting light on the under-rated Afghan conflict. These suggest that far from being yet another target for moralistic US containment, Afghanistan was set up by the Americans as an attempt to trap the Soviets in an exhausting Third World contest- to give them their own Vietnam. This discovery, and others relating to the nuclear arms race, technology, the media, and human rights debates, indicates that while not as active as initially supposed, the US was highly instrumental in bringing down European communism. At the same time, however, evidence of a self-perpetuating economic crisis, a crisis which was to spawn the powerful dissident movements in Eastern Europe, can be seen in Soviet archives as early as 1960. It could thus be argued that communism was, as an impractical, unpopular system, doomed to eventual failure. That this occurred on such a grand scale, however, and as early as 1989, must be attributed to Gorbachevs dramatic reform policies; these were in turn shaped by both external and internal pressures, as well as the particular political matrix, formulated under Khrushchev, in which Gorbachevs career began. In order to fully understand the forces that pushed Moscow towards such reforms, it is necessary to begin with the 1970s and the Soviet Union under Brezhnev. This was a period that left a strong legacy economically and thus shaped the local and international environments to a significant degree. A time of superpower dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente, both East and West were feeling the strain of Cold War competition- President Nixon of the U.S. looking for a way to liquidate the Vietnam War, and Brezhnev beginning to find the arms race excessively expensive. Trade between the two sides increased, and the common goal of nuclear non-proliferation led to various limitation agreements, such as the ABM Treaty of 1972. It was within this context, as Brezhnev was finally able to turn his attention to the process of catching up with the West financially and technologically, that the extent of the economic crisis in the communist states first became apparent. Dissent in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and, to a lesser extent, East Germany, had rung the alarm bells frequently throughout the preceding two decades, but the dilemma had never really absorbed much of the leaderships notice until now. Due to poor management of state funds, corruption within the system- granting party officials special luxuries, and an unbalanced emphasis on industrial manufacture, living standards within the Eastern camp were at a universal low. This was despite successful oil and steel production, the proceeds from which went to the maintenance of the KGB and the military presence in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. Commodities were difficult to obtain, having been sacrificed for power plants that were needed to support industry, and, as a result, labour productivity and life expectancy were on the decline. In addition, government subsidies ate up such a large portion of the state budget that foreign trade had to be restricted, and importing rationed. These conditions had long been the fuel for various dissident undercurrents, which were intensified by strict censorship; as Timothy Sowula puts it, nothing nurtures dissent like the inability to express it.1 Although not anti-communist in essence, being rather concerned with democratizing socialism than with implementing Western ideology, these movements, particularly in Hungary and Poland, called for a reduction in state control, and promoted pluralism, and were thus clearly founded on a lack of faith in communism as an economic mechanism. These groups would later develop into powerful policy-setting factions. That they should be given more freedom to express their views first dawned upon the Soviet leadership during Brezhnevs tenure, as the intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968 and the crushing of Solidarity in 1981 proved destructively expensive both financially and in terms of propaganda. These trends- of economic decline and accompanying dissent- were clearly of predominantly internal beginnings. Basic faults in the system, such as excessive state control, corruption, over-emphasis on industry and the military, in addition to the characteristically repressive environment, caused the crisis situation to emerge as rampant by the 1970s. As recently upgraded spy systems relayed, irregularly it is true, updates on these problems to the West, they were picked up by hawkists within America and taken into careful consideration by those in charge of developing foreign policy. Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente had, once again, lost its luster in the eyes of many instrumental figures, and was viewed not merely as an expression of Americas weakness but also as a cause of it. 2 In addition, U.S. failures such as Vietnam and Watergate had damaged Western morale, and President Jimmy Carter was under pressure to make a strong reinstatement of American prestige. The main source of this pressure, a new political branch later branded neo-conservative, became prominent in the late 1970s, and followed Richard Piper in stating that: The notion that through accommodation you could change (the Soviets) was faulty. To change them you needed a very hard line policy.3 It was this branch, in control of perhaps the majority of the votes in the Senate by 1979, that formulated the adjusted US line: the exploitation of Soviet weaknesses in several different forums. The first arm of this strategy was clandestine support for the existing dissident movements in Eastern Europe. Solidarity, for instance, was largely dependent on printing equipment smuggled in from the U.S, using it to put out regular bulletins coordinating strikes, presenting political advice, and informing members of trade union meetings. The same equipment was also used to publish forbidden books and essays for Solidaritys extensive underground education system. This was not exclusive to Poland, either- evidence suggests that Washington furnished insurrectionist organizations in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany with similar printing machinery. This sponsorship effectively laid the platform for the reform campaigns that were launched both subversively and in the main-stream political arena. In addition, there are numerous records of visits by American politicians to pro-Western officials in Eastern Europe, encouraging them in their resistance, and helping them to develop the petitions that they placed before the leadership in their respective countries. Thus, it is clear that the U.S. did play a relatively influential role in developing the capacity of these movements, although they were, as already stated, self creating and sustaining. In other words, it would be fair to say that while it did not incite their sentiments, the U.S. did equip those who fought for the fatal reforms that would bring down communism. Another important forum of U.S. pressure was the human rights debate. This had begun in 1975 with the signing of the Helsinki Final Act, but had not really evoked wide interest until approximately five years later, as a strong realpolitik contingent in the West had spurned the human rights issue as an unnecessary ideological digression. It was only as Jimmy Carters public promotion of humanitarianism, a tactic which had been rarely used since Vietnam, succeeded in gaining popular support, that U.S. policy makers reincorporated the human rights line into their scheme. And, indeed, this proved a worthwhile investment. Inciting peace movements across the West, and providing the dissident factions in the East with a weapon with which to fight oppression, the Helsinki Final Act, when brought to life, became a powerful document in the context of Cold War competition. It provided a frame of reference by which the peoples of the world could judge both domestic conditions and superpower behaviour in the various conquests of the 1980s. It formed the foundation for reformist debates behind the Iron Curtain, particularly on the subjects of state sovereignty and dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente. While it gained great public acclaim as a rare superpower agreement to play by the same rules, however, the Helsinki process was in fact treated with little respect by its signatories. That the U.S. valued it as something that the media could use to bring out Soviet atrocities, both within its own quarters and in places like Afghanistan, more than as a genuine moral code, was evident in Washingtons ongoing support of brutal military dictatorships in Central America, and its collaboration with apartheid South Africa. Likewise, the Soviet Union ignored the terms of the act, which were not legally binding, and opposed the freedom of traffic and of the press that it stipulated. Ultimately, although thus under-rated by the Kremlin, the Helsinki Final Act was to facilitate one of the major exposà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s of the communist system, officially dissolving the myth that communism was socialism with a human face.4 Of course, the success of this human rights operation depended largely on the media. In fact, it was as coverage of peace demonstrations in the West reached the East that an echo effect began to occur, winning support for the dissident movements and dividing central party regimes- a crucial hollowing process that would set up the later implosion. With the tight censorship exercised by Eastern regimes during this period, it may seem surprising that Western media so dramatically influenced areas such as Poland and Hungary, but highly developed technology had basically put an end to the shielding and isolating of peoples in communist countries. This was particularly true in East Germany- the normalization of relations with West Germany in August 1972 and resulted in East Germans being allowed to watch West German T.V. As had been the case throughout the Cold War, what happened in Germany set the tone for the rest of Europe. Combined with Washingtons equipping of Solidarity, this media traffic had under-estimated ramifications. Not only did it expose the peoples of the communist world to the human rights debate, it also, and perhaps more importantly, allowed them to experience the full extent of the disparity between living conditions in the East and living conditions in the West. This, a tribute to the merits of capitalism, and a tool for awakening civilians to their own economic repression, mobilized reformist movements in a way that even Washington, responsible for developing the technology for this project, had never anticipated. Running parallel to these subtler channels of pressure was the typically forefront issue of nuclear arms. And, indeed, a dramatic shift in U.S. nuclear policy around 1978-79 can be discerned, although demand for a zero option in Europe was a consistent theme throughout the relevant period. To return briefly to the 1970s and dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente, we see the nuclear arms race denounced as pointless- a vicious circle.5 Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union made marked steps during this passage of the Cold War towards the dissolution of the contest- with the partial test ban treaty of 1968, and the ABM treaty of 1972. Approximately mid-way through Jimmy Carters term, however, the soft-line policy was reversed, and the U.S. began to pressurize the Soviets by developing MRVs, and escalating the production of unlimited weapons. In addition, NATO formulated a tough response to the previously unanswered SS 20 missiles, which allegedly targeted Western Europe. The proposed introduction of the Pershing II and Tomahawk missiles in West Germany and the Netherlands was a new approach, replacing the former agreement to engage in talks on the matter. That this shift coincided with the realization that the nuclear arms race was exhausting dwindling Soviet resources and morale, suggests that it was the direct result of new insights into Soviet behaviour. As American pressure in this arena continued to rise with the development of SDI, the reality that the USSR lacked the power to retaliate began to dawn upon those in charge of foreign policy. One would think, with the traditional gauge of Cold War tensions- the nuclear contest, in such a unilateral state, that superpower relations were becoming progressively peaceful. The irony that summit talks consistently coincided with outbreaks or accelerations in external conflicts demonstrated, however, that this was not the case. In fact, if the impression that the Soviets were suddenly more pro-dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente than the U.S. in the nuclear sense even emerged, Washington quickly eradicated it by turning the worlds attention to undoubtedly aggressive Soviet behaviour in the Middle East and Angola. Exploitation of the Soviet tendency to get involved in Third World conflicts became perhaps the focus of U.S. foreign policy during the late 1970s and early 80s, as can be seen in the most obvious and important example: Afghanistan. The superpower-funded war in Afghanistan was, as stated earlier, misunderstood until perhaps a few years ago. At the time of its occurrence, and during its immediate aftermath, U.S. involvement in Afghanistan was generally defined as an extension of containment, justified with the characteristic moral charge and talk of liberating Afghan captives from an unwanted regime. According to this view, the Soviet Union entered Afghanistan to suppress popular sentiments that threatened their dominance, prompting an objection and military response from the U.S. New evidence suggests, however, that the launch of the covert CIA operation in Afghanistan was hardly a reaction to Soviet movements. On the contrary, substantial U.S. activity was recorded in the area as early as 6 months before the deployment of the Red Army, as officials stirred up opposition to the government, promising military support for an insurrection. Mr. Brezezinksi, adviser to Carter at the time, sums this up, saying: According to the official version of history, aid to the moujahideen began during 1980after the Soviet army invadedBut the realitysecretly guardedis completely otherwise.6 Having established this, we can see that U.S. involvement in Afghanistan had a far from peaceable source; quite the opposite, the plan of action was to induce a Soviet military intervention.7 The purposes of this operation were multiple, but are encapsulated in Brezezinksis statement, quoted earlier, that this was the (Soviets) own Vietnam8- in other words, a conflict designed to exhaust economically, raise disputes at home, and as a touch-point for propaganda. And it worked, too. Domestically, by the time the conquest was five years old, and had claimed thousands of Soviet lives, it had become extremely unpopular, fuelling dissent, and disillusioning even faithful communists. Economically, a battle fought in the mountains with helicopters against the powerful US FIM-92 Stingers was expensive, and, in addition, created a rift between the Red Army and the Soviet leadership as the fighting went on past the desired date of departure. Further, since the West controlled the international media, it was able to present coverage of the exchange with a prejudice, emphasizing the Soviet atrocities and the number of civilian deaths. Human rights were, as one would expect, a major talking point within this context. In addition to undermining the Soviet Union in the above ways, Afghanistan was used as a pretext to end every vestige of dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente. The promising grain trade that had sprung up between the U.S. and the East was abruptly brought to a close. Then, Washington pressured the Saudi Arabian leadership, which was co-operating with the CIA in Afghanistan, to lower oil prices, and thus undercut the Soviet monopoly. Simultaneously, the White House denounced the SALT II Treaty as meaningless, and began inciting people in the West to express their disapproval of Soviet actions by boycotting the 1980 Moscow Olympics. The result of all these manouevres was a dramatic heightening in temperature in the Soviet Union, as it found itself stretched and tested at numerous points- economic, political, and military. It is clear, then, that it was a combination of both internal and external forces that shaped the political climate in Moscow in the critical mid-80s period. An additional factor, overlooked in that it is better defined as a context than as a force, was the legacy of dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente and democratization that Khrushchev had left the communist party. While gradually eradicated from main-stream politics as its negative effects began to emerge in Eastern Europe and China, this remained an important influence in specific circles. It had a particular impact on those whose careers had begun under Khrushchev, as his anti-Stalinism left a lasting imprint on minds trained to worship an infallible Soviet leadership. These politicians, many harbouring inclinations towards democratization and reform despite Brezhnevs harsh Sinatra Doctrine, were to emerge as central figures in the Kremlin by 1985. This created an entirely new environment, uniquely receptive to the heightening pressure for refor m that was applied through the previously mentioned channels. Mikhail Gorbachev, a leading figure within this political contingent, was elected head of the communist party both as a result of the natural process outlined above, and as officials realized that the public would best submit to someone with plans for reform. His policies have been cited as the major cause of the collapse of communism, which is reasonable in a limited sense, but they must be viewed as the product of the existing domestic and international situations rather than as a theoretical digression. Faced with such economic, political, and military strain, Gorbachev virtually had no other choice than to seek to minimize Soviet expenses. And this meant, of course, reorganizing the empire for efficiency (perestroika). It also entailed pacifying the masses by giving them a voice; the policy of open discussion, known as glasnost, reduced censorship and allowed debates on ideology to take place. This approach was developed with the aim of liquidating factions such as Solidarity, by giving them certain concessions, for example, freedom of speech and of assembly. As later became evident, however, both this policy and perestroika had a far from calming effect in the Soviet Union and in Eastern Europe. Ultimately, Gorbachevs reforms destroyed communist rule because they compromised the central police force and terror necessary to its survival- allowing pluralism, and opening gateways to the West. This took place in both an economic and a political sense, so that capitalist influences infiltrated almost every sphere of Soviet society. The first of Gorbachevs policies to make an impact was perestroika, which was put before the Kremlin in June 1987, and began to affect the economic structure almost immediately. As early as August, the Soviet Union had begun to make overtures to British prime-minister Margaret Thatcher, arranging for Western businesses to be established on Soviet soil, and opening up the oil trade. A series of joint ventures were set up the following year, although they were never to achieve the stated goal of helping the USSR to advance technologically. At the same time, petroleum production was restored, state planning diminished, taxes regulated, and a law passed permitting private businesses to operate. These changes were to affect almost everyone- many negatively, as alterations in factory relationships caused workers to lose their jobs. In fact, this economic democratization actually worsened living conditions- that this occurred just as the people were becoming exposed to the comparative wealth of Western nations as traffic flow and the media opened up, ensured that perestroika contributed significantly to the fall of communism. This exposure came with the policy of glasnost, introduced in the Soviet Union in late 1987, and entailing the open discussion of communist ideology both through the media, and within the Party. Its inception was accompanied by Gorbachevs declaration before the UN that he would not intervene in the internal affairs of other Warsaw Pact countries. Together, these liberalizations virtually ended communist terror, opening the way for reform. In addition, the new media freedoms enabled programs detailing past Soviet atrocities, such as the gulags and the Great Purges, to be broadcast. At the same time, the inefficiency of Stalins mechanisms and the extent of state corruption in the past were made known in full to the public. This greatly undermined the peoples faith in the system- it eroded the CPs social power base, by bringing down its traditional corner stones- the hierarchy of the politburo, and CP dominance. The effects of these policies were first evident in Eastern Europe, as dissident movements supported by Gorbachev began to gain power. In Poland, for instance, the previously banned Civic Society was able to rise to a position where it could negotiate for economic reforms and other freedoms- freedoms which would eventually lead to pluralism. Hungary followed a similar course, its underground organizations receiving encouragement and inspiration from Gorbachev, and Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria, while slower to get started, eventually experienced much the same thing. This process- the rise of dissent and the consequent introduction of non-communist elements into the party- escalated as it became increasing clear that Moscow had no intention of opposing democratization. It culminated in 1988-89, as a series of insurrections, some violent, some peaceful, brought about the reinstatement of free elections and the overthrow of communist regimes across Eastern Europe. This implosion is perhaps symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall, which occurred after Gorbachev liscensed Hungary to open its border and thus provide an escape route for East Germans. It was echoed in the Soviet Union two years later- the Red Army had staged a brief coup in the interests of a military intervention in Eastern Europe, and had failed. Gorbachev had tried to regain popular support, and had proposed a new constitution, dismissing the CPCC, but Estonia, Ukraine, and Belarus nonetheless declared their independence. By 1991, communist rule in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union was over, and the world was left to reflect on the sad, bizarre chapter in human history,9 that had just been written. It can thus be confirmed that the decline of communism after 1985 was the direct result of Gorbachevs policies. And, in this sense, it was an internal force that brought about the actual collapse that occurred, although, as already established, this was shaped both by U.S. pressure and conditions within the Eastern bloc. It is important, in addition, not to overlook the role that American policy played in these latter years. That Reagan and Thatcher continued to build western economies that far outshone those in the East certainly kept the pressure on the communists. Likewise, Regan constantly challenged Gorbachevs commitment to peace, demanding that he open this gatetear down this wall.10 For the most part, however, the collapse was self-contained after 1985. It is perhaps best summarized by Erik Chenoweth in his article, Common Elements of Successful Opposition to Communism: pluralism is an anathema to communism andcan survive communisms system of terror, where the systems terror is balanced by societys opposition.11 1 Timothy Sowula, The Helsinki Process and the Death of Communism, 2002. 2 Richard Piper, Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente and Its Demise, 2001. 3 ibid. 4 Timothy Sowula, ibid 5 Colonel-General Nikolai Chervov, as quoted in Dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½tente And Its Demise, 2001 6 Brezezinksi, The Afghan Caper, 2004 7 ibid. 8 ibid. 9 Robert Reagan as quoted in Misinterpreting the Cold War- www.foreignaffairs.org/19950/001fareviewessay5008/richard-pipes.html 10 ibid. 11 http://www.idee.org/cubaideas4.html

Capgras Delusion: Impaired Face Recognition Process

Capgras Delusion: Impaired Face Recognition Process Capgras delusion, the belief that somebody is replaced by an imposer. First, this study examines whether Capgras patients, compared to controls, have an impaired face recognition process. Patients show to be hyporesponsive to familiar faces and show to have a decreased activity in brain areas, such as the prefrontal, lateral temporal and mesial temporal regions. The second part of this study examines the belief reasoning processes in patients compared to controls. Patients show an impairment in their belief reasoning process and this is linked to an impairment of the right lateral prefrontal cortex. The goal is to see whether Capgras patients have an impaired face-recognition process and an impaired belief-evaluating process, associated with the brain activity, compared to control participants. The main objectives Showing that Capgras patients have an impaired face recognition process because they are hyporesponsive to familiar faces, by measuring reaction times of the recognition of familiar and unfamiliar faces. Showing that, because certain areas in the brain are responsible for face recognition, Capgras patients have impairments in certain brain areas, such as the prefrontal, lateral temporal and mesial temporal regions (by measuring the BOLD activity in these areas), to experience Capgras delusions, because they are hyporesponsive to familiar faces. Showing that, because according to Colthearts two factor theory, Capgras patients have a decreased reasoning-evaluation process, Capgras patients have an impaired reasoning process. This study also wants to show that this reasoning process is associated with the right lateral prefrontal cortex (by measuring the BOLD activity in the right lateral prefrontal cortex) and that Capgras patients should show in impairment in this area. This study is seeking to expand research on which processes are damaged in people who experience Capgras delusions, looking at two theories. Experiment 1 and 2 are about damage to the face recognition system. In experiment 1we argue that patients are hyporesponsive to familiar faces by looking at their reaction times in the recognition of familiar and unfamiliar faces. In experiment 2, an fMRI scan measures the brain activity while participants look at familiar and unfamiliar faces. It is predicted that Capgras patients will show impairments in areas that are involved in face recognition, such as the prefrontal, lateral temporal and mesial temporal regions. The second theory, the two factor theory, suggests that delusions are a result of an impairment of belief evaluation processes. Experiment 3 wants to link this impairment in belief reasoning to the right prefrontal lateral cortex. Capgras patients are expected to show a decreased activity, measured by an fMRI scan, in this area wh ile they do a belief reasoning task. This will indicate that Capgras patients have impaired face recognition processes and impaired belief reasoning processes and these processes are linked to several impairments in the brain. Delusional misidentification syndromes (DMS) are psychiatric disorders distinguished by the fact that they all involve some deviation from normal processes of recognising people (Ellis Young, 1990, p239). A specific DMS is the Capgras syndrome. The Capgras syndrome is characterized by the patient insisting that others, usually those quite close emotionally, have been replaced by doubles, impostors or robots (Ellis et al., 1997, p 1058). For example, a man could think his mother is replaced by an imposer. Mostly the duplicated people, are people very close to the patients (Todd et al., 1981) and the patients often show conflicting feelings of love and hate for the duplicated relatives (Enoch Trethowan, 1991). Most of the patients who are suffering from Capgras syndrome have some evidence of brain abnormalities (Joseph, 1985). Bauer (1984, 1986) introduced the dual recognition route. He suggests that there are two routes of facial recognition, the ventral and the dorsal route. The ventral route runs from the visual cortex to the temporal lobes and is the conscious recognition route. The dorsal route runs from the visual cortex to the limbic system and is the affective response route. Ellis Young (1990) proposed that Capgras delusion is a mirror-image of prosopagnosia, the inability to recognise previous familiar faces, mostly following brain damage (Sorger et al., 2007). They suggested that in Capgras delusions, the affective response route is damaged, which means that patients will consciously recognise the person, but they wont have an affective response that is associated with familiarity, but they do have an intact ventral route. In 1997 Ellis et al. did study on face recognition in Capgras patients. They found that unlike the control participants, who showed significant differences, that Capgras pati ents showed no difference in skin conductance response (SCR) to familiar and unfamiliar faces, which means that they are hyporesponsive to familiar faces and thus that Capgras patients have a breakdown in familiarity processing. Coltheart (2007) worked further on this idea and proposed that if you can answer the next two questions, we can have a possible explanation for the delusion. Where did the delusion come from? and Why does the patient not reject the belief? (Coltheart, 2007, p1044). This called this the two factor theory of delusions. He proposed that there had to be two neuropsychological deficits. First, what is responsible for the content of the delusion and secondly, what is responsible for the persistence of the belief, which means that there needs to be damage in the right hemisphere, because it is involved in belief evaluation. They argued that the right temporal-parietal regions and the right frontal lobe are very important in the belief evaluation. In 2011, Coltheart et al. explained that via abductive inference we make propositions. These propositions have to survive a belief-evaluation process to be adopted as a belief. According to Coltheart et al. (2011) this belief evaluation process is damaged in Capgras patients. This study wants to look at both views, the impairments of face recognition and the impairments to belief evaluation processes. Experiment 1 and 2 focuses on face recognition, whether experiment 3 focuses on the belief evaluation process. First of all, usually reaction times are significantly faster for familiar faces than for unfamiliar faces (Balas, Cox Conwell, 2007). Because of the hyporesponsiveness to familiar faces (Ellis et al., 1997), Capgras patients are expected to have no significant difference in reaction time between familiar and unfamiliar faces. Secondly, according to Ellis et al. (1997), Capgras patients should have an impairment in their face recognition. One study found a reduced neural activity in the face recognition system in a case of Capgras delusion (Thiel et al., 2013). Another study found higher activity in the left superior parietal and biletral middle frontal gyrus in familiar faces (Rossion et al., 2001). Activations in the prefrontal, lateral temporal and mesial temporal regions were associated with recognition of famous faces (Leveroni et al., 2000). This would mean that Capgr as patients, who are hyporesponsive to familiar faces (Ellis et al., 1997), would show an increased activity in these areas. In experiment 3, the belief evaluation process is tested. Coltheart et al. (2011) suggested that the impairment in Capgras patients in the belief evaluation process is associated with right lateral prefrontal cortex pathology. Evidence was found for a dynamic neural system for reasoning in the lateral/dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (Goel Dolan, 2003). In an fMRI study, they found a role of the lateral prefrontal cortex in modulation of reasoning by beliefs (Goel Dolan, 2003). They found that correct logical reasoning showed an increased activity in the right lateral prefrontal cortex. This means that, according to Colthearts two factor theory (2010), that Capgras patient would show a decreased activity in this area, because of their impairments in the belief evaluation system. Participants and design: This study will recruit a sample of 10 Capgras patients and 10 healthy age-matched controls. Participants will receive fees for participating. They will be provided with an informed consent. This study exists out of two experiments. In the first task participants will be provided with pictures of familiar and unfamiliar faces (in Capgras patients familiar faces of the persons they replace with imposers and in controls with family members) while reaction time is measured and an fMRI scan is taken. In the second experiment, the right lateral prefrontal cortex activity is measured with an fMRI scan while the participants look at familiar and unfamiliar faces and at the same time are asked questions about these persons in a belief-reasoning task. Stimulus materials and procedure: In the first experiment, participants were asked to sit in 0.5 m in front of a screen. Each trial started with a cue image of a familiar or an unfamiliar face for 500 ms. After an interinterval of 500 ms, a picture that matched the cue image was shown together with a picture that didnt match (left and right). The participants were asked via button presses to show which picture matched the cue image, as rapid and accurately as possible. All stimulus presentation responeses were analysed with the Matlab Psychophysics Toolbox. This task was taken from Balas, Cox Conwell (2007). In the second experiment, before the participants will be asked to enter the fMRI, they will be instructed about the task. This study uses the task Ellis et al. (1997) used, for testing the identification of familiar faces. When they are in the fMRI, they will see pictures of their family members (for the Capgras patients, including the persons they think are replaced by imposers) or unfamiliar pictures. They got to see 10 familiar faces and 20 unfamiliar faces in random order. For each face the participant was asked to respond if the face was familiar to them or not, while the fMRI scan measured their blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) activity in their brain. In experiment 3, the participants were asked again to enter the fMRI scan. We used the belief reasoning task (Appendix: Picture 1) of Sommer et al. (2007). In both of the conditions, the first four pictures are the same. In the true belief task the girl comes back in the room and sees that the boy puts the ball into the baske t. In the false belief task, she comes back in the room after he putted the ball in the basket. The response picture (red) was the same in both condition. In 50% of the trials, the girl, based on her belief, looked for the ball in the expected box and in the other 50% in the unexpected box. The participants needed to decide if Betty, based on her belief, made the expected or unexpected choice by key pressing, while the BOLD activity in the right lateral prefrontal cortex was measured. In experiment 1 we expect that Capgras patients will show no significant difference in reaction times to familiar or unfamiliar faces, because of their hyporesponsivess to familiar faces (Ellis et al., 1997), compared to normal controls who are expected to have reaction times faster for familiar faces than for unfamiliar faces (Balas, Cox Conwell, 2007). In experiment 2 we expect Capgras patients to have a decreased activity in the prefrontal, lateral temporal and mesial temporal regions compared to controls, because of their impairment in face recognition (Ellis et al., 1997). In experiment 3, we expect patients to have a decreased activity in the right lateral prefrontal cortex while they do the belief reasoning task, because of Colthearts suggestion that Capgras patients have a damaged belief evaluation process. This study will benefit psychologist who have studied Capgras delusion, because the causes are still very vague and not that many studies have been done on Capgras. It will also benefit Capgras patients. . It can be useful for patients suffering from schizophrenia and dementia because Capgras syndrome is often associated with these disorders. It can help create treatments by knowing the origins in the brain while patients experience these hallucinations. This study focus on more theories, which makes it easier to understand this delusion.

Effect of Stigma on Mental Health

Effect of Stigma on Mental Health From thousands of years, debate has been going on among practitioners how to treat mental illness. Several modifications have been done from burning, chaining, locking them in homes and drilling their heads to unchaining and treating them like humans (Foerschner, 2010). But the nurses who work in mental health setting still face the problems in delivering care in a stigma free environment in order to promote the health of mentally ill patients (Stuart, 2009). For such mentally ill clients we need to accept their behavior rather than stigmatization (Angermeyer Matschinger, 2003). Stigma is a â€Å"collection of negative attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, and behaviors that influence the individual, or the general public, to fear, reject, avoid, be prejudiced, and discriminate people† (Gary, 2005). The reason behind selection of this topic is that to accepting mentally ill patient with the intention of promoting their health. In West, stigma to mental illness is properly recognized, equally managed and prevented. Yet, in Eastern cultures, being mentally ill is still seen as a mark of dishonor for family, mental health patients are still stigmatized and socially isolated and supposed as being haunted by evil spirit or jinn (Naeem, Ayub, Javed, Irfan, Haral Kingdon, 2006). Additionally, mental health is considered to be the most avoided field in Pakistan due to the stigma attached to it (Qasim, 2012). Not so long I have being in psychiatric setting where we all were sitting in cafà © having our break together, suddenly a man in brown traditional clothes with leather jacket wearing black goggles ask one of our colleague if he want some tea? he answered â€Å"no†, that person sat on nearby table and ask waiter to bring one zinger burger. While noting his getup which was not according to weather and unusual behavior, my colleague abruptly ask our faculty â€Å"Ma’am is he mad or what? After hearing those words that patient suddenly pushes his chair and leaves the cafà ©.† This is how people unintentionally target psychiatric patient by hitting their self-esteem rather accepting them as a part of society and understand there awkward behavior as a part of their illness. In a society stigma marks a boundary between â€Å"normal† and â€Å"outsider,† and between â€Å"us† and â€Å"them† (Link Phelan, 2001). Question is how we can break this boundary of discrimination which is causing barrier to recovery of mentally ill clients? The case scenario will now be analyzed on a social cognitive model explains how public and self stigma are formed and maintained. There are 3 components that structure this model are: stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination. Social psychologists see stereotypes as information learned by society (Augoustinos, Ahrens, Innes, 1994; Esses, Haddock, Zanna, 1994; Hilton von Hippel, 1996; Judd Park, 1993; Krueger, 1996; Mullen, Rozell, Johnson, 1996). Without thinking we quickly create expectation and impression of people who fit in to a stereotyped group, (Hamilton Sherman, 1994) just like my colleague label that person as ‘mad’. Prejudice endorse people may show a negative reactions by supporting their learned negative stereotype. (Devine, 1988, 1989, 1995; Hilton von Hippel, 1996; Krueger, 1996). Prejudice may lead to discriminatory behavior (Weiner, 1995) just like my colleague discriminate that person as one who is not following societal norms and discriminate his behavior from normal to abnormal (for social cognitive model refer appendix fig 1.). Being stigmatized has several harmful effects on the individual, the immediate family and the community too. At first in the name of honor or embarrassment, the individual and family doesn’t reach the health care provider for treatment options. It also cause non-adherence to effective treatment regimen. Self stigma is another effect resulting in low self esteem, negative self perception and self care when a person internalizes the discriminatory behavior and societal stigmatizing attitude. Lastly stigma has also affects the attitude of health care provider. Study has shown that in hospital setting nurses display punishing attitude and use unacceptable manner for treating them, like unnecessarily retraining them (Pinto-Foltz Logsdon, 2009). To reduce stigma and discrimination against people with mental health disorders the largest ever program was launched in England on Jan 21, 2009, called Time to Change. By referring social cognitive model this program aims to show that change is possible that would bring hope to people who are deleteriously exhausted by discrimination (refer appendix fig 2.) (Henderson Thornicroft). A few procedures for stigma decrease are accounted in the literature. These interventions and techniques might be used at diverse levels: the intrapersonal, interpersonal, organizational/institutional, group, and governmental/structural (McLeroy et al, 1988; Richard et al, 1996). Firstly, intrapersonal level has always remained a primary focus to change the behavior of an individual. Interventions are done to change the individual’s knowledge, behavior, attitude, self concept, enhancing self esteem, coping skills, strengthening, and financial support. We can carry out these interventions via indiv idual counseling or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and Self help advocacy and support groups (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). Secondly, intervention at interpersonal level deals with the impact of social gathering and social support on the health of mentally ill client. The interpersonal environment of the patient includes their family, friends and work environment. They intend to build connections between patient and his/her interpersonal environment in order to restore or promote their health. This could be carry out through Care and support by family, Home care teams, and Community-based rehabilitation (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). Furthermore, the organizational level also being used in order to change the perception of public towards stigma and its effect on individual. This could be accomplished through training programs and institutional changes which increase knowledge of the disease and effect of stigma on the lives of mentally ill clients (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2 006). Additionally stigma reduction can be intervene at community level whose aim is to increase knowledge about mental illness and stigma attached to it. For stigma reduction campaign, education is often used as a first step and it may combine with the other strategies as well. Educational interventions may include presentations, discussions, simulations, audiotapes, and movies, focusing specific populations (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). Lastly, on governmental level work can be carried out in order to structure such policy which aims to protect the rights of the people who are suffering from stigmatizing illness (Heijnders Van Der Meij, 2006). The World Health Organization (WHO) argued that ‘policies on discrimination, access to prevention and care, confidentiality of care and individual’s rights can make a significant impact’ (2002). In Conclusion it is recommended that client’s dignity and safety should remain paramount at all times. To break the chain of stigma the social cognitive model should be vigilantly applied in psychiatric setting. Patient-centred approach is required, which starts with intrapersonal level, which gives power to affected person to development self esteem and stigma reduction related programs at other levels. â€Å"There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so† (Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act 2 Scene 2).

American vs. Foreign Employees Essay -- essays research papers

Presidential responsibility requires much focus on both the United States’ economy and the labor force. In order to establish a thriving nation of successful commerce and secure employment opportunities for all Americans, it is important to create policies to ensure that these goals are achieved. Therefore, an essential platform in my presidential race would be the guarantee that although businesses have the right to manufacture their products overseas, a law should limit the ratio between American vs. foreign employees to at least 2:1 in order to improve employment rates in the United States.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the major reasons the economy has been suffering in recent years is the fact that employment rates have plummeted. Workers are deemed unqualified for many jobs, and while lower classes struggle to find work, the upper class enjoys extravagant salaries. In order to balance the employment rate between the classes, the United States also must provide higher education in order to better train and qualify more Americans. If there were more skillful workers entering the work force, employment rates would be fulfilled rather than depreciative, thus improving the nation’s economy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It has become a common business practice to conduct physical labor overseas, because it is much more cost efficient to pay foreigners to do a job that Americans would require more pay for. Most corporations have established a distinct ploy that calls ...

Cluster Intersections and the Evolution of the Bay Area Bioinformatics Cluster :: essays research papers

Cluster Intersections and the Evolution of the Bay Area Bioinformatics Cluster The recent establishment California-based bioinformatics industry clusters is a logical consequence of the intersection of existing local Biotechnology, Information Technology and Venture Capital clusters. The very definition of Bioinformatics: â€Å"the science of managing and analyzing biological data using advanced computing techniques, 1† helps to illustrate the nature of this intersection. Research and development for Biotech companies generates volumes of biological data and IT companies provide tools that assist in processing this data. It seems only natural that in light of this mutual dependency and given the proximity of existing IT and Biotech clusters a new, specialized Bioinformatics cluster would emerge. In his article, â€Å"Clusters and the New Economics of Competition,† Porter describes the benefits created by the â€Å"direction and pace of innovation 2† sustained by local competitors in their existing products and technologies. For example, given the already lengthy process of bringing a new pharmaceutical to market, Biotech companies must have realized early on that their ability to stay abreast of competitors was highly dependant on the speed at which they could process massive amounts of genetic information to find therapeutic candidates. Clearly, the incorporation of cutting edge information technologies into Biotech research and development processes was itself a critical innovation, but it was also critical to future innovations within the Biotech industry. Porter would probably argue that the competitive pressures of clustered Biotech firms fostered more urgent and rapid incorporation of advanced computing into genetic research. The proximity of the knowledg e and resources in the IT cluster made it easier to both conceive of these innovations and to access the resources that enabled them. Conversely, innovations in the field of Information Technology were stimulated in response to the both the needs of the Biotech cluster, and the urgent clamoring of IT competitors to capitalize on a new market. Porter asserts that â€Å"vibrant† clusters not only stimulate innovation in established companies but that new businesses and new innovations take shape in response to the competitive environment. Start-up firms have a unique opportunity to observe the incumbents in the cluster and conceive of ways to improve existing products or develop complementary offerings. New firms benefit from an existing local customer base but also may be able to more readily recognize and capitalize on a niche market in the midst of many established competitors 3. The Bioinformatics industry appears to have emerged in a similar manner, filling the gap between the IT and Biotech clusters.

Entering True Religion Brand Jeans into Mauritius Essay

In 2002, Jeffrey Lubell founded True Religion– a brand of premium, vintage-inspired denim. Iconic for its precise fit and bold stitching details, True Religion has grown exponentially as a company and continues to operate according to its mission statement: â€Å"†¦to make quality, American-made, authentic, timeless, great fitting, 1970’s inspired jeans wear, with a trendsetting appeal for today’s consumer† (True Religion Brand Jeans, 2009). The company currently offers a wide variety of apparel and accessories for men, women, and children, and is one of America’s leading designer denim brands. As the demand for premium denim has risen over the past decade– giving rise to companies such as 7 For All Mankind and Paige Premium Denim– True Religion has remained successful by entering its products into foreign markets. True Religion jeans can be found all over Asia, Europe, and in less-developed countries such as Egypt. It is this global presence that allows the brand to maintain an edge over its competitors. Which foreign market should be entered next? While countries such as France and Italy are typical target regions amongst clothing brands, developing countries with a large tourist industry could be promising as well. One country in particular shows great potential as a new market for True Religion– Mauritius. An island located off the southwest coast of Africa, the country offers some of the world’s most stunning beaches, diverse people, a cosmopolitan society, and a booming tourist industry; all of which, would be beneficial for launching True Religion Brand Jeans. Officially named The Republic of Mauritius, the political system of the island is a democracy that has been modeled after the British Parliamentary system. This allows for free elections that take place every five years, and secures a separation of power within the government. Its legal system is primarily based on the civil law system of France, as well as English common law (Government of Mauritius, 2009). The government’s prominent presence in the Mauritian economy has proved to be extremely effective and beneficial to the country and its people. Several acts have been put into effect to diversify the island’s economy and build upon sectors that are currently successful, while striving to become a modern society with a high standard of living. The success of the country’s political and legal systems are further illustrated by Mauritius having a current real growth rate of 5. %, and being voted as the best-governed country in all of Africa (Government of Mauritius, 2009). Although developing countries may be perceived as a risky business investment, Mauritius’ economic growth and development through the years have proven otherwise. As the official government website of Mauritius states, â€Å"An attractive blend of advantages is offered to international investors. These include: political stability, pleasant and peaceful living conditions, efficient telecommunications, pool of qualified professionals conversant in English and French†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Government of Mauritius, 2009). Mauritius has an ultimate goal of modernizing its society– this includes modernizing its retail industry. Introducing True Religion jeans to the country provides the company with an untapped resource and would give True Religion a competitive edge against other premium denim brands. There are many opportunities that developing nations such as Mauritius offer. With a society that wishes to be worldly and up-to-date as well as a tourist industry that brings in people from all over the globe, Mauritius can offer True Religion Jeans an entirely new group of potential consumers, in a new and exciting location.

Battle of Salamis

The Battle of Salamis (Naumachia tes Salaminos) was fought between an Alliance of Greek city-states and the Persian Empire in September 480 B. C. , in the straits between the mainland and Salamis, an island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens. It marked the high-point of the second Persian invasion of Greece which had begun in 480 B. C. To block the Persian advance, a small force of Greeks blocked the pass of Thermopylae, while an Athenian-dominated Allied navy engaged the Persian fleet in the nearby straits of Artemisium. In the resulting Battle of Thermopylae, the rearguard of the Greek force was annihilated, whilst in the Battle of Artemisium the Greeks had heavy losses and retreated after the loss at Thermopylae. This allowed the Persians to conquer Boeotia and Attica. The Allies prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth whilst the fleet was withdrawn to nearby Salamis Island. Although heavily outnumbered, the Greek Allies were persuaded by the Athenian general Themistocles to bring the Persian fleet to battle again, in the hope that a victory would prevent naval operations against the Peloponessus. The Persian king Xerxes was also anxious for a decisive battle. As a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the Persian navy sailed into the Straits of Salamis and tried to block both entrances. In the cramped conditions of the Straits the great Persian numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganized. Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet formed in line and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 300 Persian ships. As a result Xerxes retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece. However, the following year, the remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the Battle of Plataea and the Persian navy at the Battle of Mycale. Afterwards the Persian made no more attempts to conquer the Greek mainland. These battles of Salamis and Plataea thus mark a turning point in the course of the Greco-Persian wars as a whole; from then onward, the Greek poleis would take the offensive. A number of historians believe that a Persian victory would have hamstrung the development of Ancient Greece, and by extension western civilization, and this has led them to claim that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history. 2] The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the ‘Father of History',[3] was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his ‘Enquiries' around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC). 4] Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented ‘history' as we know it. [4] As Holland has it: â€Å"For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally. â€Å"[4] Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides. 5][6] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. [6] Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay â€Å"On The Malignity of Herodotus†, describing Herodotus as â€Å"Philobarbaros† (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed. 7] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. [8] However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. [9] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism. [9] Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story. 10] The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's. [11] The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims. [12]

Long Passages

An upsurge of new research suggests that animals have a much higher level of brainpower than previously thought. If animals do have intelligence, how do scientists measure it? Before defining animals' intelligence, scientists defined what is not intelligence. Instinct is not intelligence. It is a skill programmed into an animal's brain by its genetic heritage. Rote conditioning is also not intelligence. Tricks can be learned by repetition, but no real thinking is involved. Cuing, in which animals learn to do or not to do certain things by following outside signals, does not demonstrate intelligence.Scientists believe that insight, the ability to use tools, and communication using human language are all effective measures of the mental ability of animals. (2) When judging animal intelligence, scientists look for insight, which they define as a flash of sudden understanding. When a young gorilla could not reach fruit from a tree, she noticed crates scattered about the lawn near the tre e. She piled the crates into a pyramid, then climbed on them to reach her reward. The gorilla's insight allowed her to solve a new problem without trial and error. (3) The ability to use tools is also an important sign of intelligence.Crows use sticks to pry peanuts out of cracks. The crow exhibits intelligence by showing it has learned what a stick can do. Likewise, otters use rocks to crack open crab shells in order to get at the meat. In a series of complex moves, chimpanzees have been known to use sticks and stalks in order to get at a favorite snack—termites. To make and use a termite tool, a chimp first selects just the right stalk or twig. He trims and shapes the stick, then finds the entrance to a termite mound. While inserting the stick carefully into the entrance, the chimpanzee turns it skillfully to fit the inner tunnels.The chimp attracts the insects by shaking the twig. Then it pulls the tool out without scraping off any termites. Finally, he uses his lips to sk im the termites into his mouth. (4) Many animals have learned to communicate using human language. Some primates have learned hundreds of words in sign language. One chimp can recognize and correctly use more than 250 abstract symbols on a keyboard. These symbols represent human words. An amazing parrot can distinguish five objects of two different types. He can understand the difference between the number, color, and kind of object.The ability to classify is a basic thinking skill. He seems to use language to express his needs and emotions. When ill and taken to the animal hospital for his first overnight stay, this parrot turned to go. â€Å"Come here! † he cried to a scientist who works with him. â€Å"I love you. I'm sorry. Wanna go back? † (5) The research on animal intelligence raises important questions. If animals are smarter than once thought, would that change the way humans interact with them? Would humans stop hunting them for sport or survival? Would anima ls still be used for food, clothing, or medical experimentation?Finding the answer to these tough questions makes a difficult puzzle even for a large-brained, problem-solving species like our own. 1. Crows use sticks to pry peanuts out of cracks. Which of the following is the kind of intelligence or conditioning the situation describes? a. rote learning b. tools c. communication d. instinct 2. The underlined word upsurge, as it is used in the first paragraph of the passage, most nearly means a. an increasingly large amount. b. a decreasing amount. c. a well-known amount. d. an immeasurable amount. 3. The concluding paragraph of this passage infers which of the following? . There is no definitive line between those animals with intelligence and those without. b. Animals are being given opportunities to display their intelligence. c. Research showing higher animal intelligence may fuel debate on ethics and cruelty. d. Animals are capable of untrained thought well beyond mere instinct. 4. According to the passage, which of the following is true about animals communicating through the use of human language? a. Parrots can imitate or repeat a sound. b. Dolphins click and whistle. c. Crows screech warnings to other crows. d.Chimpanzees and gorillas have been trained to use sign language or geometric shapes that stand for words. 5. In paragraph 3, what conclusion can be reached about the chimpanzee's ability to use a tool? a. It illustrates high intelligence because he is able to get his food and eat it. b. It illustrates instinct because he faced a difficult task and accomplished it. c. It illustrates high intelligence because he stored knowledge away and called it up at the right time. d. It illustrates high intelligence because termites are proteinpacked. 6. Which of the following is not a sign of animal intelligence? . shows insight b. cues c. uses tools d. makes a plan Passage 2 (1) Photosynthesis is the process that plants use to convert sunlight into the food that they need to survive and grow. Most plants create some form of sugar from the sunlight, and this sugar is used by the plant as its primary food source. (2) Plants actually need only three things to create this sugar: sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water. The sunlight reacts with the plant's chlorophyll, a green chemical which is used to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugar. (3) As a general rule, photosynthesis occurs in a plant's leaves.The leaf contains chlorophyll, which reacts when sunlight strikes the leaf. It is also the chlorophyll which gives the leaf its typical green color, since photosynthesis absorbs most light rays except green, which are reflected outwards. (4) The process of photosynthesis produces more than just sugar, however. One byproduct of the process is oxygen, which is â€Å"exhaled† by the plant into the atmosphere. In fact, plant photosynthesis is one of the primary sources of oxygen generation on our planet, making plant life essential to almost all living things on earth. 7.According to paragraph 4, which of the following is a byproduct of photosynthesis? a. green pigment b. water c. carbon dioxide d. oxygen 8. The underlined word essential, as used in paragraph 4, most nearly means a. necessary. b. optional. c. fragrant. d. growing. 9. The passage explains that photosynthesis is a. done in the plant stem. b. what makes plants edible. c. the way that plants feed themselves. d. the source of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 10. According to the passage, why do plant leaves look green? a. Leaves are actually not green. b. Photosynthesis absorbs all colors except green. .Sugar is green. d. Photosynthesis requires green light to produce sugar. 11. After reading the passage, what can you conclude about photosynthesis? a. Chlorophyll is part of the ozone layer. b. Photosynthesis is the process that feeds a plant. c. Plants need oxygen to survive. d. The roots of a plant provide water. 12. After reading the passage, what can you infer about photosynthesis? a. Human life would not survive without plants. b. Chlorophyll tastes sweet. c. Sunlight has both good and bad effects on plants. d. Too much water can interfere with photosynthesis.Passage 3 1) Abraham Lincoln served as the 16th President of the United States, yet he never went to college. In fact, Lincoln had nearly no formal education whatsoever, attending schools for less than a year throughout his childhood. Yet this should not be construed to mean that Lincoln was ignorant or unlearned; on the contrary, he was one of the most well-read leaders of the time. The fact is that Abraham Lincoln educated himself by studying books of religion, philosophy, and literature, and he continued his voracious reading throughout his life. (2) A lack of public school education did not prevent Lincoln from becoming a great leader.He led the United States through four years of civil war, which threatened to divide the nation into two separate countries. He was a powerful opponent of slavery, and it was largely through his leadership that slavery was abolished in this country. (3) Lincoln's determination to educate himself through diligent reading also led to his reputation as a great orator—and even today his speeches are quoted and studied worldwide.He serves as an example of a great leader—and a great reader. His love of books and good literature enabled Abe Lincoln to rise to world renown. 3. What is the main idea of this passage? a. Abe Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States. b. Abe Lincoln demonstrated the value of reading. c. Abe Lincoln was a Republican. d. Abe Lincoln freed the slaves. 14. Lincoln accomplished all of the following EXCEPT a. preventing the United States from being divided. b. ending slavery. c. becoming a great leader. d. establishing the Lincoln Memorial. 15. A voracious reader is a. likely to become President. b. a person who makes reading a regular habit. c. someone who never went to s chool. d. probably poor. 16.The underlined word construed, as used in paragraph 1, most nearly means a. tormented. b. taken apart. c. unscrewed. d. interpreted. 17. According to the passage, what lesson can be learned from the life of Abraham Lincoln? a. Education is not important. b. All books are worth reading. c. Good reading habits can help a person do great things. d. Politicians are always good role models. 18. How does Lincoln still affect students today? a. His face is on money. b. His speeches are still quoted and studied today. c. People grow beards to look like him. d. Students quit school in hopes of becoming president.